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<title>Alien (law)</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Alien (law)</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Resident alien" and "Non-citizens" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="Resident_Alien_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Resident Alien (disambiguation)">Resident Alien (disambiguation)</a> and <a href="Non-citizens_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Non-citizens (disambiguation)">Non-citizens (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#f0f0ff;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="Legal_status" title="Legal status">Legal status</a> of <a href="Person" title="Person">persons</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;">

<a href="Birthright" title="Birthright">Birthright</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Place_of_birth" title="Place of birth">Birthplace</a>

<ul><li><a href="Birth_aboard_aircraft_and_ships" title="Birth aboard aircraft and ships">Aboard aircraft and ships</a></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Jus_sanguinis" title="Jus sanguinis">Jus sanguinis</a></i></li>

<ul><li><a href="Birth_tourism" title="Birth tourism">Birth tourism</a></li></ul></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;">

<a href="Nationality" title="Nationality">Nationality</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship</a>

<ul><li><a href="Statelessness" title="Statelessness">missing</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiple_citizenship" title="Multiple citizenship">multiple</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnational_citizenship" title="Transnational citizenship">transnational</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Naturalization" title="Naturalization">Naturalization</a>

<li><a href="Loss_of_citizenship" title="Loss of citizenship">Lost citizenship</a>

<ul><li><a href="Denaturalization" title="Denaturalization">denaturalized</a></li>

<li><a href="Renunciation_of_citizenship" title="Renunciation of citizenship">renounced</a></li></ul></li></ul></td>

</tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;">

<a href="Immigration" title="Immigration">Immigration</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Enemy_alien" title="Enemy alien">Enemy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Criminalization_of_migration" title="Criminalization of migration">Criminalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Diplomatic_protection" title="Diplomatic protection">Diplomatic protection</a></li>

<li><a href="Expatriate" title="Expatriate">Expatriate</a></li>

<li><a href="Foreign_worker" title="Foreign worker">Foreign worker</a></li>

<li><a href="Illegal_immigration" title="Illegal immigration">Illegal</a></li>

<li><a href="Integration_of_immigrants" title="Integration of immigrants">Integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Permanent_residency" title="Permanent residency">Permanent residency</a></li>

<li><a href="Refugee" title="Refugee">Refugee</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_homeland" title="Right to homeland">Right to homeland</a></li>

<li><a href="Voluntary_return" title="Voluntary return">Voluntary return</a>

<ul><li><a href="Identity_cleansing" title="Identity cleansing">Identity cleansing</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_of_return" title="Right of return">Right of return</a></li></ul></li></ul></td>

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<p>In <a href="Law" title="Law">law</a>, an <b>alien</b> is generally any <a href="Person" title="Person">person</a> (including an <a href="Organization" title="Organization">organization</a>) who is not a <a href="Citizenship" title="Citizenship">citizen</a> or a <a href="Nationality" title="Nationality">national</a> of a specific <a href="Country" title="Country">country</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Garner_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garner-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-person_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-person-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although definitions and terminology differ across <a href="Legal_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal systems">legal systems</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lexicology">Lexicology</h2></div>

<p>The term "alien" is derived from the <a href="Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">alienus</i></span></i>. The Latin later came to mean a stranger, a foreigner, or someone not related by blood.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar terms to "alien" in this context include <i>foreigner</i> and <i>lander</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Categories">Categories</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Resident alien" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="Resident_Alien_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Resident Alien (disambiguation)">Resident Alien</a>.</div>

<p>Different countries around the world use varying terms for aliens. The following are several types of aliens:

</p>

<ul><li><b>legal alien</b> — any <a href="Foreign_national" title="Foreign national">foreign national</a> who is permitted under the law to be in the host country. This is a very broad category which includes <a href="Travel_visa" title="Travel visa">travel visa</a> holders or foreign tourists, registered <a href="Refugee" title="Refugee">refugees</a>, <a href="Temporary_resident" title="Temporary resident">temporary residents</a>, <a href="Permanent_residency" title="Permanent residency">permanent residents</a>, and those who have <a href="Renunciation_of_citizenship" title="Renunciation of citizenship">relinquished their citizenship</a> and/or nationality.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Categories of legal alien include

<ul><li><b>temporary resident alien</b> — any foreign national who has been lawfully granted permission by the government to drive, fly, travel, lodge, reside, study or work for a specific number of years and then apply for an extension or leave the country before such permission expires.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><b>permanent resident alien</b> — any <a href="Immigrant" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigrant">immigrant</a> who has been lawfully admitted into a nation and granted the legal right to remain therein as a permanent resident in accord with the nation's <a href="Immigration_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigration laws">immigration laws</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-immigrant_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-immigrant-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><b>nonresident alien</b> — any foreign national who is lawfully within a nation but whose <a href="Domicile_(law)" title="Domicile (law)">legal domicile</a> is in another nation.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li>

<li><b>alien enemy</b> (or <a href="Enemy_alien" title="Enemy alien">enemy alien</a>) — any foreign national of any country that is at war with the host country.<sup id="cite_ref-alien_enemy_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alien_enemy-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><b>undocumented alien</b> (or deportable alien) — any person who is liable to <a href="Deportation" title="Deportation">deportation</a> because their presence in a nation is in violation of that nation's immigration laws.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Common_law_jurisdictions">Common law jurisdictions</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="History_of_British_nationality_law#Early_English_and_British_nationality_law" title="History of British nationality law">History of British nationality law § Early English and British nationality law</a></div>

<p>An "alien" in <a href="English_law" title="English law">English law</a> denoted any person born outside of the monarch's dominions and who did not owe allegiance to the monarch. Aliens were not allowed to own <a href="Real_property" title="Real property">land</a> and were subject to different taxes to <a href="British_subject" title="British subject">subjects</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idea was passed on in the <a href="Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> to other common law jurisdictions.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3></div>

<p>In <a href="Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, citizenship is defined in the <a href="Australian_nationality_law" title="Australian nationality law">Australian nationality law</a>. Non-citizens in Australia are permanent residents, temporary residents, or illegal residents (technically called "unlawful non-citizens").<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most non-citizens (including those who lack citizenship documents) traveling to Australia must obtain a <a href="Visa_policy_of_Australia" title="Visa policy of Australia">visa</a> prior to travel. The only exceptions to the rule are holders of <a href="New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> passports and citizenship, who may apply for a visa on arrival according to the <a href="Trans-Tasman_Travel_Arrangement" title="Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement">Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 2020, in <i><a href="Love_v_Commonwealth" title="Love v Commonwealth">Love v Commonwealth</a></i>, the <a href="High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court of Australia</a> ruled that <a href="Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a> (as defined in <i><a href="Mabo_v_Queensland_(No_2)" title="Mabo v Queensland (No 2)">Mabo v Queensland (No 2)</a></i>) cannot be considered aliens under the <a href="Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia">Constitution of Australia</a>, regardless of whether they were born in Australia or hold Australian citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-karp_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-karp-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-byrne_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-byrne-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3></div>

<p>In Canada, the term "alien" is not used in federal statutes. Instead, the term "<a href="Foreign_national" title="Foreign national">foreign national</a>" serves as its equivalent and is found in legal documents. The <i><a href="Immigration_and_Refugee_Protection_Act" title="Immigration and Refugee Protection Act">Immigration and Refugee Protection Act</a></i> defines "foreign national" as "a person who is not a <a href="Canadian_citizen" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian citizen">Canadian citizen</a> or a permanent resident, and includes a stateless person."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="British_Nationality_Act" title="British Nationality Act">British Nationality Act</a></div>

<p>In the <a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the <a href="British_Nationality_Act_1981" title="British Nationality Act 1981">British Nationality Act 1981</a> defines an alien as a person who is not a <a href="British_citizen" class="mw-redirect" title="British citizen">British citizen</a>, a citizen of Ireland, a <a href="Commonwealth_citizen" title="Commonwealth citizen">Commonwealth citizen</a>, or a <a href="British_protected_person" title="British protected person">British protected person</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Aliens_Act_1905" title="Aliens Act 1905">Aliens Act 1905</a>, the <a href="British_Nationality_and_Status_of_Aliens_Act_1914" class="mw-redirect" title="British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914">British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914</a> and the <a href="Aliens_Restriction_(Amendment)_Act_1919" title="Aliens Restriction (Amendment) Act 1919">Aliens Restriction (Amendment) Act 1919</a> were all products of the turbulence in the early part of the 20th century.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Refugee_Act_of_1980" title="Refugee Act of 1980">Refugee Act of 1980</a> and <a href="United_States_person" title="United States person">United States person</a></div>

<p>In the United States, the term "alien" is as synonymous with <a href="Foreign_national" title="Foreign national">foreign national</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-foreign_national_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-foreign_national-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the <a href="Immigration_and_Nationality_Act" title="Immigration and Nationality Act">Immigration and Nationality Act</a> (INA) of the United States, "[t]he term 'alien' means any person not a <a href="Citizenship_of_the_United_States" title="Citizenship of the United States">citizen</a> or <a href="National_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="National of the United States">national of the United States</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Garner_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garner-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-person_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-person-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People born in <a href="American_Samoa" title="American Samoa">American Samoa</a> or on <a href="Swains_Island" title="Swains Island">Swains Island</a> are statutorily "non-citizen nationals."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others, such as natives of <a href="Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a> and the <a href="Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a>, are legal immigrants and aliens for INA purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Every <a href="Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee</a> that is admitted to the United States under <a href="Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 8 of the United States Code">8 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1157">§ 1157</a> automatically becomes an "immigrant" and then a "special immigrant" after receiving a <a href="Green_card" title="Green card">green card</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-immigrant_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-immigrant-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>The usage of the term "alien" dates back to 1790, when it was used in the Naturalization Act and then 1798 when it was used in the <a href="Alien_and_Sedition_Acts" title="Alien and Sedition Acts">Alien and Sedition Acts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the INA provides no overarching explicit definition of the term "illegal alien", it is mentioned in a number of provisions under title 8 of the US code.<sup id="cite_ref-illegal_alien_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-illegal_alien-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several provisions mention the term "unauthorized alien". "undocumented alien" or "undocumented person<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="PolitiFact" title="PolitiFact">PolitiFact</a>, the term "illegal alien" occurs in federal law, but does so scarcely, writing that, "where the term does appear, it's undefined or part of an introductory title or limited to apply to certain individuals convicted of felonies.”<sup id="cite_ref-:0_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Since the U.S. law says that a <a href="Corporate_personhood" title="Corporate personhood">corporation is a person</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-person_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-person-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the term alien is not limited to natural humans because what are colloquially called foreign corporations are technically called alien corporations. Because corporations are creations of local state law, a foreign corporation is an out-of-state corporation.

</p><p>There are a multitude of unique and highly complex U.S. domestic tax laws and regulations affecting the U.S. tax residency of foreign nationals, both nonresident aliens and resident aliens, in addition to income tax and social security tax treaties and <a href="Totalization_agreements" title="Totalization agreements">totalization agreements</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>"Alienage", i.e., citizenship status, has been prohibited since 1989 in <a href="New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> from being considered for employment, under that town's Human Rights legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_jurisdictions">Other jurisdictions</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_states">Arab states</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Bedoon" title="Bedoon">Bedoon</a></div>

<p>In the <a href="Gulf_Cooperation_Council" title="Gulf Cooperation Council">Gulf Cooperation Council</a> (United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, Bahrain, and Qatar), many non-natives have lived in the region since birth. However, these Arab states do not easily grant citizenship to non-natives.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most stateless Bedoon in Kuwait belong to indigenous northern tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3></div>

<p>The <a href="European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> withdraw the term "alien" from documents relative to <a href="Eurodac" title="Eurodac">Eurodac</a>, a European Union-wide biometric database that collects and maintains fingerprint records of non-EU/European Economic Area (EEA), adopting "third-country national or a stateless person"<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Alien_land_laws" title="Alien land laws">Alien land laws</a></li>

<li><a href="Alien_Tort_Statute" title="Alien Tort Statute">Alien Tort Statute</a></li>

<li><a href="California_Alien_Land_Law_of_1913" title="California Alien Land Law of 1913">California Alien Land Law of 1913</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Gaijin" title="Gaijin">Gaijin</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Laowai" title="Laowai">Laowai</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Persona_non_grata" title="Persona non grata">Persona non grata</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Unaccompanied_Alien_Children" title="Unaccompanied Alien Children">Unaccompanied Alien Children</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/alien-law">"Alien"</a>. Britannica<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 12,</span> 2021</span>. <q>Alien, in national and international law, a foreign-born resident who is not a citizen by virtue of parentage or naturalization and who is still a citizen or subject of another country.</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Garner-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Garner_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Garner_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGarner2009" class="citation book cs1">Garner, Bryan A. (June 25, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/s?search-alias=stripbooks&field-isbn=0314199497"><i>alien</i></a> (9th ed.). Black's Law Dictionary. p. 84. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-314-19949-2</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 17,</span> 2018</span>. <q>A person who resides within the borders of a country but is not a citizen or subject of that country; a person not owing <a href="Allegiance" title="Allegiance">allegiance</a> to a particular nation. - In the United States, an alien is a person who was born outside the jurisdiction of the United States, who is subject to some foreign government, and who has not been naturalized under <a href="Immigration_and_Nationality_Act" title="Immigration and Nationality Act">U.S. law</a>.</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.en-academic.com/171/alien">"alien"</a>. law.academic.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 17,</span> 2018</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-person-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-person_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-person_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-person_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="neverexpand"><a href="Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 8 of the United States Code">8 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1101#b_3">§ 1101(b)(3)</a></span> ("The term 'person' means an individual or an organization.")</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oxford Latin Dictionary entry for <i>Alienus</i></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Van Houtum, Henk. "The mask of the border." The Routledge Research Companion to Border Studies. Routledge, 2016. 71-84.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 8 of the United States Code">8 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1481">§ 1481</a> ("Loss of nationality by native-born or naturalized citizen; voluntary action; burden of proof; presumptions")</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uscis.gov/green-card/after-we-grant-your-green-card/conditional-permanent-residence">"Conditional Permanent Residence"</a>. <i><a href="United_States_Citizenship_and_Immigration_Services" title="United States Citizenship and Immigration Services">United States Citizenship and Immigration Services</a></i>. October 23, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 10,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-immigrant-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-immigrant_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-immigrant_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRosenbergRich1995" class="citation journal cs1">Rosenberg, Michael; Rich, Mark D. (April 1995). "Foreign Investment In U.S. Real Estate-Beyond FIRPTA: Regulatory Requirements and Planning StrategiesRequirements and Planning Strategies". <i>University of Miami Business Law Review Unive</i>. <b>5</b> (1): 107.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHennigWangYuan2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hennig, Cherie J.; Wang, Ningkun; Yuan, Xiaoli (2006). "Cross-Border Taxation of Employee Stock Options". <i>The ATA Journal of Legal Tax Research</i>. <b>4</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">59–</span>75. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2308%2Fjltr.2006.4.1.59">10.2308/jltr.2006.4.1.59</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFShuntich2012" class="citation journal cs1">Shuntich, Louis S. (July 2012). "Estate Planning Strategies for Resident and Nonresident Aliens". <i>Journal of Financial Service Professionals</i>. <b>66</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">55–</span>60.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-alien_enemy-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-alien_enemy_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blacks_law.en-academic.com/1418/alien_enemy">"alien enemy"</a>. law.academic.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 12,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 8 of the United States Code">8 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1442">§ 1442</a> ("Alien enemies"); <a href="Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 18 of the United States Code">18 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/757">§ 757</a> ("Prisoners of war or enemy aliens")</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKelly1977" class="citation journal cs1">Kelly, Charles B. (December 1977). "Counting the Uncountable: Estimates of Undocumented Aliens in the United States". <i>Population and Development Review</i>. <b>3</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">473–</span>481. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1971686">10.2307/1971686</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1971686">1971686</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Blackstone, <i>Commentaries on the Laws of England</i> (1753), Book 1, Chapter 10</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cccs.law.unimelb.edu.au/download.cfm?DownloadFile=98E80E9C">Key Issue 5. Citizenship Fact Sheet 5.2 Citizenship in Australia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200312064550/https://apps.law.unimelb.edu.au/farcry/core/webtop/login.cfm?returnUrl=%2Findex.cfm%3Ffurl%3D%2Fcccs%26&error=draft&showdraft=1">Archived</a> March 12, 2020, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 2012-03-05.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629154251/http://www.aph.gov.au/house/committee/mig/report/olympics/Chap2.pdf">"Australia's Visitor and Temporary Entry Provisions"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Joint Standing Committee on Migration, Parliament of Australia. September 27, 1999. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aph.gov.au/house/committee/mig/report/olympics/Chap2.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on June 29, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2011</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sbs.com.au/news/high-court-rules-aboriginal-australians-cannot-be-aliens-under-the-constitution">"High Court rules Aboriginal Australians cannot be 'aliens' under the constitution"</a>. <i>SBS News</i>. February 11, 2020.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-karp-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-karp_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKarp2020" class="citation web cs1">Karp, Paul (February 11, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/feb/11/high-court-rules-aboriginal-australians-are-not-aliens-under-the-constitution-and-cannot-be-deported">"High court rules Aboriginal Australians are not 'aliens' under the constitution and cannot be deported"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-byrne-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-byrne_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFByrneRobertson2020" class="citation web cs1">Byrne, Elizabeth; Robertson, Josh (February 11, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-02-11/high-court-rules-aboriginal-people-cant-be-deported/11953012">"Man released from detention as High Court rules Aboriginal people cannot be deported"</a>. <i>ABC News</i>. Australian Broadcasting Corporation<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/I-2.5/page-1.html#h-2">Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (S.C. 2001, c. 27)</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1981/61/section/51">section 51</a>, British Nationality Act 1981</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-foreign_national-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-foreign_national_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="neverexpand"><a href="Title_52_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 52 of the United States Code">52 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/52/30121#b">§ 30121(b)</a></span> (explaining that "the term 'foreign national' means.... (2) an individual who is not a citizen of the United States or a national of the United States (as defined in section 1101(a)(22) of title 8) and who is not <a href="Green_card" title="Green card">lawfully admitted for permanent residence</a>, as defined by section 1101(a)(20) of title 8.").</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211112052306/https://cite.case.law/f3d/788/300/4230126/#p302">"Tuaua v. United States, 788 F.3d 300"</a>. <i>D.C. Circuit</i>. Harvard Law School. June 5, 2015. p. 302. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cite.case.law/f3d/788/300/4230126/#p302">the original</a> on November 12, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 8,</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMcElfishHallgrenYamada2015" class="citation journal cs1">McElfish, Pearl Anna; Hallgren, Emily; Yamada, Seiji (April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4358182">"Effect of US Health Policies on Health Care Access for Marshallese Migrants"</a>. <i>American Journal of Public Health</i>. <b>105</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">637–</span>643. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.2014.302452">10.2105/AJPH.2014.302452</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4358182">4358182</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25713965">25713965</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/alien-and-sedition-acts">"Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)"</a>. <i>National Archives</i>. May 19, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 25,</span> 2025</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-illegal_alien-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-illegal_alien_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., <span class="neverexpand"><a href="Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 8 of the United States Code">8 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1252c#a_1">§ 1252c(a)(1)</a></span>; <span class="neverexpand"><a href="Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 8 of the United States Code">8 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1330#b_3_A_iii">§ 1330(b)(3)(A)(iii)</a></span>; <span class="neverexpand"><a href="Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 8 of the United States Code">8 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1356#r_3_ii">§ 1356(r)(3)(ii)</a></span>; <span class="neverexpand"><a href="Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 8 of the United States Code">8 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1365#b">§ 1365(b)</a></span> ("An illegal alien ... is any alien ... who is in the United States unlawfully...."); <span class="neverexpand"><a href="Title_8_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 8 of the United States Code">8 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1366">§ 1366</a></span></span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSelby2018" class="citation web cs1">Selby, W. Gardner (May 9, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politifact.com/texas/statements/2018/may/09/steve-mccraw/illegal-alien-legal-term-federal-law/">"Is 'illegal alien' a term in federal law?"</a>. <i>PolitiFact</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 26,</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.protaxconsulting.com/foreign-nationals-nonresident-resident-aliens/">"Foreign Nationals: Non-Resident Aliens and Resident Aliens"</a>. Protax Consulting Services.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTyler_Blint-Welsh2019" class="citation news cs1">Tyler Blint-Welsh (September 25, 2019). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/new-york-city-employers-who-say-go-back-to-your-country-could-face-fines-11569438201">"New York City Employers Who Say 'Go Back to Your Country' Could Face Fines"</a></span>. <i>The Wall Street Journal</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 30,</span> 2019</span>. <q>Since 1989, the city's human-rights law has banned discrimination based on citizenship status or "alienage" in employment, housing and public accommodations.</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www1.nyc.gov/site/cchr/law/in-housing.page">The protected classes covered under the New York City Human Rights Law are:Age Alienage or Citizenship Status</a>"</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHabboush2013" class="citation news cs1">Habboush, Mahmoud (October 10, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-emirates-citizenship-feature/call-to-naturalise-some-expats-stirs-anxiety-in-the-uae-idUKBRE99904J20131010">"Call to naturalise some expats stirs anxiety in the UAE"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arabnews.com/news/482086">"Say no to expats calling for Saudi citizenship"</a>. <i><a href="Arab_News" title="Arab News">Arab News</a></i>. November 24, 2013.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2014" class="citation web cs1">Harrison, Ryan (January 5, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140901125525/http://gulfbusiness.com/2014/01/gcc-citizenship-debate-a-place-to-call-home/#.VKfqDxA4Lw8">"GCC Citizenship Debate: A Place To Call Home"</a>. <i>Gulf Business</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gulfbusiness.com/2014/01/gcc-citizenship-debate-a-place-to-call-home/#.VKfqDxA4Lw8">the original</a> on September 1, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 3,</span> 2015</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFElbasnaly2019" class="citation news cs1">Elbasnaly, Dina (July 21, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dw.com/en/the-bedoons-kuwaits-stateless-minority/a-49674107">"Bedoons: Kuwait's stateless minority"</a>. <i>Deutsche Welle</i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">EUR-Lex Document 32013R0603 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2013/603/oj/eng">https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2013/603/oj/eng</a></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/alien" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:alien">alien</a></b></i> or <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aliens" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:aliens">aliens</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/cat.aspx">Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/biden-seeks-replace-alien-less-dehumanizing-term-immigration-laws-n1255350">Biden seeks to replace 'alien' with less 'dehumanizing term' in immigration laws</a> (<i>NBC News</i>, Jan. 22, 2021)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199796953/obo-9780199796953-0047.xml">Aliens - International Law - Oxford Bibliographies</a> (24 July 2013)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/noncitizensen.pdf">The rights of non-citizens</a>, <a href="Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights" title="Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights">Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights</a>, 2006</li>

<li><a href="Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a> Commission for Democracy through Law <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090214064001/http://www.venice.coe.int/docs/2007/CDL-AD(2007)001-e.asp">report on noncitizens and minority rights</a>, 2007</li>

<li>D. C. Earnest <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221130230734/https://ww2.odu.edu/~dearnest/pdfs/Earnest_APSA_2003.pdf">Noncitizen Voting Rights: A Survey of an Emerging Democratic Norm</a>, 2003</li>

<li><a href="University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a> Human Rights Center: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/edumat/studyguides/noncitizens.html">Study Guide: The Rights of Non-Citizens</a>, 2003</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120609172135/https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documentsonline/aliens.asp">UK Aliens' registration cards on The National Archives' website.</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><b><a href="Social_status" title="Social status">Status</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Stratum</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="Economic_classes" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic classes">Economic classes</a></b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Gilbert_model" title="Gilbert model">Gilbert model</a></li>

<li><a href="Marxian_class_theory" title="Marxian class theory">Marxian</a></li>

<li><a href="Mudsill_theory" title="Mudsill theory">Mudsill theory</a></li>

<li><a href="New_class" title="New class">New class</a></li>

<li><a href="Spoon_class_theory" title="Spoon class theory">Spoon class theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Three-component_theory_of_stratification" title="Three-component theory of stratification">Weberian (three-component)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Related<wbr> topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li>

<li><a href="Chattering_classes" title="Chattering classes">Chattering classes</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Class conflict">Class conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class discrimination</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Class society">Class society</a></li>

<li><a href="Class_traitor" title="Class traitor">Class traitor</a></li>

<li><a href="Classicide" title="Classicide">Classicide</a></li>

<li><a href="Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li>

<li><a href="Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li>

<li><a href="High_society" title="High society">High society</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Nouveau_riche" title="Nouveau riche">Nouveau riche</a></i> / <i><a href="Parvenu" title="Parvenu">Parvenu</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></li>

<li><a href="Ranked_society" title="Ranked society">Ranked society</a></li>

<li><a href="Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_cleansing" title="Social cleansing">Social cleansing</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">Social mobility</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_orphan" title="Social orphan">Social orphan</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_position" title="Social position">Social position</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li>

<li><a href="Subaltern_(postcolonialism)" title="Subaltern (postcolonialism)">Subaltern</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Status_Anxiety" title="Status Anxiety">Status Anxiety</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_demographic321" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div title="demographic">By demographic</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By status</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Administrative_detention" title="Administrative detention">Administrative detainee</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Illegal_immigration" title="Illegal immigration">illegal immigrant</a></li>

<li><a href="Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizen</a>

<ul><li><a href="Multiple_citizenship" title="Multiple citizenship">dual or multiple</a></li>

<li><a href="Jus_soli" title="Jus soli">native-born</a></li>

<li><a href="Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalized</a></li>

<li><a href="Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">second-class</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Clique" title="Clique">Clique</a>

<ul><li><a href="Adolescent_clique" title="Adolescent clique">adolescent</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Loss_of_rights_due_to_conviction_for_criminal_offense" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of rights due to conviction for criminal offense">Convicted</a></li>

<li><a href="Migrant_worker" title="Migrant worker">Migrant worker</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">Political prisoner</a></li>

<li><a href="Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">Socioeconomic</a></li>

<li><a href="Statelessness" title="Statelessness">Stateless</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By "<a href="Designation_of_workers_by_collar_color" title="Designation of workers by collar color">collar</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Green-collar_worker" title="Green-collar worker">Green</a></li>

<li><a href="White-collar_worker" title="White-collar worker">White</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">Aristocracy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Aristoi" title="Aristoi">Aristoi</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hanseaten_(class)" title="Hanseaten (class)">Hanseaten</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnate" title="Magnate">Magnate</a></li>

<li><a href="Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Russian_oligarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian oligarch">Russian</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Patrician

<ul><li><a href="Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Ancient Rome</a></li>

<li><a href="Patrician_(post-Roman_Europe)" title="Patrician (post-Roman Europe)">Post-Roman</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Political_class" title="Political class">Political</a>

<ul><li><a href="Political_family" title="Political family">Family</a>

<li><a href="Hereditary_politicians" title="Hereditary politicians">Hereditary</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Royal_family" title="Royal family">Royal family</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Intellectual" title="Intellectual">Intellectual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">Knowledge worker</a></li>

<li><a href="Professor" title="Professor">Professor</a></li>

<li><a href="Scholar" title="Scholar">Scholar</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chhetri" title="Chhetri">Chhetri</a></li>

<li><a href="Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a></li>

<li><a href="Eagle_warrior" title="Eagle warrior">Cuāuh</a></li>

<li><a href="Harii" title="Harii">Harii</a></li>

<li><a href="Order_of_Assassins" title="Order of Assassins">Hashashin</a></li>

<li><a href="Knight" title="Knight">Knight</a></li>

<li><a href="Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li>

<li><a href="Jaguar_warrior" title="Jaguar warrior">Ocēlōtl</a></li>

<li><a href="Pendekar" title="Pendekar">Pendekar</a></li>

<li><a href="Samurai" title="Samurai">Samurai</a></li>

<li><a href="Spartiate" title="Spartiate">Spartiate</a></li>

<li><a href="Vanniyar" title="Vanniyar">Vanniyar</a>/<a href="Vanniar_(Chieftain)" title="Vanniar (Chieftain)">Vanniar (Chieftain)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Upper_class" title="Upper class">Upper</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Business_magnate" title="Business magnate">Business magnate</a></li>

<li><a href="Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li>

<li><a href="Gabellotto" title="Gabellotto">Gabellotto</a></li>

<li><a href="Gentry" title="Gentry">Gentry</a></li>

<li><a href="Nobility" title="Nobility">Nobility</a>

<ul><li><a href="Landed_nobility" title="Landed nobility">Landed</a></li>

<li><a href="Petty_nobility" title="Petty nobility">Petty</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Old_money" title="Old money">Old money</a></li>

<li><a href="Overclass" title="Overclass">Overclass</a></li>

<li><a href="Robber_baron_(industrialist)" title="Robber baron (industrialist)">Robber baron</a></li>

<li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="Seigneur" title="Seigneur">Seigneur</a></i></span></li>

<li><i><a href="Superclass_(book)" title="Superclass (book)">Superclass</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Creative_class" title="Creative class">Creative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemians</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Middle_class" title="Middle class">Middle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</a>

<ul><li><a href="Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">Petite</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Burgher_(social_class)" title="Burgher (social class)">Burgher</a></li>

<li><a href="Lower_middle_class" title="Lower middle class">Lower middle class</a></li>

<li><a href="Upper_middle_class" title="Upper middle class">Upper middle class</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Working_class" title="Working class">Working</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Commoner" title="Commoner">Commoner</a></li>

<li><a href="Lazzaroni_(Naples)" title="Lazzaroni (Naples)">Lazzaroni</a></li>

<li><a href="Lumpenproletariat" title="Lumpenproletariat">Lumpenproletariat</a></li>

<li><a href="Pea-pickers" title="Pea-pickers">Pea-pickers</a></li>

<li><a href="Peasant" title="Peasant">Peasant</a></li>

<li><a href="Precariat" title="Precariat">Precariat</a></li>

<li><a href="Proletariat" title="Proletariat">Proletariat</a></li>

<li><a href="Working_poor" title="Working poor">Working poor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Underclass" title="Underclass">Under</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ant_tribe" title="Ant tribe">Ant tribe</a></li>

<li><a href="Outcast_(person)" title="Outcast (person)">Outcast</a></li>

<li><a href="Outlaw" title="Outlaw">Outlaw</a> / <a href="Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a></li>

<li><a href="Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebeian</a></li>

<li><a href="Rat_tribe" title="Rat tribe">Rat tribe</a></li>

<li><a href="Slavery" title="Slavery">Slave</a> / <a href="Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a></li>

<li><a href="Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchable</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region321" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div title="country">By country or region</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="United_States92" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li>

<li><a href="American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_American_history" title="Social class in American history">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Socioeconomic_mobility_in_the_United_States" title="Socioeconomic mobility in the United States">Mobility</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Classes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_upper_class" title="American upper class">Upper</a>

<ul><li><a href="African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Black</a></li>

<li><a href="Donor_Class" class="mw-redirect" title="Donor Class">Donor</a></li>

<li><a href="American_gentry" title="American gentry">Gentry</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle</a>

<ul><li><a href="African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Black</a></li>

<li><a href="Mexican-American_middle_class" title="Mexican-American middle class">Mexican-American</a></li>

<li><a href="Upper_middle_class_in_the_United_States" title="Upper middle class in the United States">Upper Middle</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Underprivileged</a>

<ul><li><a href="American_lower_class" title="American lower class">Lower</a></li>

<li><a href="Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Under</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Income_in_the_United_States" title="Income in the United States">Income</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household</a></li>

<li><a href="Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Inequality</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal</a></li>

<li><a href="Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Education</a></li>

<li><a href="Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li>

<li><a href="Home-ownership_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Home-ownership in the United States">Home-ownership</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Other regions<wbr> or countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Caste_systems_in_Africa" title="Caste systems in Africa">Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Belizean_society" title="Belizean society">Belize</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Cambodia" title="Social class in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">China</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Colombia" title="Social class in Colombia">Colombia</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_France" title="Social class in France">France</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Haiti" title="Social class in Haiti">Haiti</a></li>

<li><a href="Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">India</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Italy" title="Social class in Italy">Italy</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Luxembourg" title="Social class in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li>

<li><a href="Caste_system_in_Nepal" title="Caste system in Nepal">Nepal</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_New_Zealand" title="Social class in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Nigeria" title="Social class in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_structure_of_Romania" title="Social structure of Romania">Romania</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Social class in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Tibet" title="Social class in Tibet">Tibet</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social class in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">United States</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Historic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Social_class_in_18th-century_Spain" title="Social class in 18th-century Spain">18th-century Spain</a></li>

<li>Ancient Greece</li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_Aztec_society" title="Social class in Aztec society">Aztec</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Social class in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li>

<li><a href="Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">Pre-industrial East Asia</a></li>

<li><a href="Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">Pre-industrial Europe</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Soviet Union</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal;"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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